Evaluation of woodchips-amended biosand filter for nitrate and MS2 bacteriophage reduction.

In this study, two types of woodchip-amended biosand filters (Filter A sand: woodchip = 33%: 67% versus Filter B sand: woodchip = 50%: 50%, by volume) were constructed, and their abilities to remove MS2 bacteriophage and nitrate were investigated. The results indicated that Filter A and Filter B could reduce nitrate up to 40 and 36%, respectively, indicating that the nitrate reduction increased with the increase in woodchip proportion. The study underscores a positive correlation between nitrate reduction and proportional increase in woodchip content, implying the potential for fine-tuning nitrate removal by varying sand-woodchip compositions. W-BSFs could remove MS2 bacteriophage to 1.91-log10 (98.8%) by Filter A and 1.88-log10 (98.7%) by Filter B over 39 weeks. The difference in sand-woodchip proportion did not significantly impact the MS2 reduction, demonstrating that a single W-BSF can maintain its virus removal performance fairly well over a long-term period. These results indicated that the nitrate reduction could be adjusted by varying sand-woodchip contents without impacting virus removal performance. Microbial community analysis indicated that the nitrate removal by the W-BSFs could be attributed to the denitrifying bacteria, such as the family Streptomycetaceae, the genera Pseudomonas, and Bacillus, and relative abundances of the phylum Nitrospirae.

Improving nitrate load simulation of the SWAT model in an extensively tile-drained watershed.

Subsurface drainage systems are effective management practices employed to remove excess soil water, thereby improving soil aeration and crop productivity. However, these systems can also contribute to water quality issues by enhancing nitrate leaching and loads from agricultural fields. The Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) is commonly used to assess nitrate loads and long-term water quality impacts from agricultural watersheds. However, the current SWAT model oversimplifies nitrate transport processes by assuming a linear relationship between nitrate concentrations in tile flow and soil nitrate content. It also neglects the time lag between nitrate loading and transport with the flow. This study aimed to enhance the accuracy of nitrate load prediction by revising the subsurface drainage routine in the SWAT model. The revised routine was tested using flow and nitrate load measurements from a typical tile-drained watershed in east-central Illinois, U.S. The results demonstrated that the revised SWAT nitrate routine outperformed the current one in simulating nitrate transport at field and watershed scales. The revised routine improved the nitrate load prediction from an "unacceptable" to a "satisfactory" or "good" rating on the field scale. A sensitivity analysis conducted using the revised nitrate module showed the parameters directly associated with transpiration, groundwater discharge to the reach, the lag time of tile flow, and channel flow hydraulics were the most sensitive in nitrate load simulation. In addition, different tile depth scenarios were modeled to evaluate variation in the amount of surface runoff, tile flow, and nitrate loads by the surface flow and tile flow. The results of tile configuration scenarios agreed with understanding the tile flow process. The test results demonstrated the potential of the revised SWAT nitrate module as a tool to accurately evaluate the effects of tile drainage systems on water quality.

Sustainability of cover cropping practice with changing climate in Illinois.

Climate change could adversely impact the best management practices (BMPs) designed to build a sustainable agro-ecological environment. Cover cropping is a conservation practice capable of reducing nitrate-nitrogen (NO3-N) loadings by consuming water and nitrate from the soil. The objective of this study was to investigate how climate change would impact the proven water quality benefits of cereal rye as a winter cover crop (CC) over the climate divisions of Illinois using the DSSAT model. Moreover, this study explores the sustainability of the CC with the changing climate conditions by using five regional climate models (RCMs) projections of two warming scenarios-rcp45 (a medium emission scenario - radiative forcing of 4.5 W/m2) and rcp85 (a high emission scenario - radiative forcing of 8.5 W/m2)). The CC impact simulated in the warming scenarios for the near-term (2021-2040) and the far-term future (2041-2060) were compared with the baseline scenario (2001-2020). Our results conclude that the climate change may negatively impact [average of CC and no CC (NCC)] maize yield (-6.6%) while positively affecting soybean yield (17.6%) and CC biomass (73.0%) by the mid-century. Increased mineralization caused by rising temperature could increase the nitrate loss via tile flow (NLoss) and nitrate leached (NLeached) up to 26.3% and 7.6% on average by the mid-century in Illinois. Increasing CC biomass could reduce the NLoss more considerably in all the scenarios compared to the baselines. Nevertheless, the NLoss level in the CC treatment can increase from the near-term to far-term future and could get closer to the baseline levels in the NCC treatment. These results suggest that CC alone may not address nitrate loss goals via subsurface drainage (caused by increasing N mineralization) in future. Therefore, more robust and cost-effective BMPs are needed to aid the CC benefits in preventing nutrient loss from the agricultural fields.

Evaluation of long-term impact of cereal rye as a winter cover crop in Illinois.

Extensive tile drainage usage combined with excess nitrogen fertilization has triggered nutrient loss and water quality issues in Illinois, which over time endorsed the hypoxia formation in the Gulf of Mexico. Past research reported that the use of cereal rye as a winter cover crop (CC) could be beneficial in reducing nutrient loss and improving water quality. The extensive use of CC may aid in reducing the hypoxic zone in the Gulf of Mexico. The objective of this study is to analyze the long-term impact of cereal rye on soil water­nitrogen (N) dynamics and cash crops growth in the maize-soybean agroecosystem in the state of Illinois. A gridded simulation approach was developed using the DSSAT model for the CC impact analysis. The CC impacts were estimated for the last two decades (2001-2020) for two fertilization scheduling (FA-SD = Fall and side-dress N and SP-SD = Spring pre-plant and side-dress N) comparing between CC scenario (FA-SD-C/SP-SD-C) with no CC (NCC) scenario (FA-SD-N/SP-SD-N). Our results suggest that the nitrate-N loss (via tile flow) and leaching reduced by 30.6 % and 29.4 %, assuming extensive adaptation of cover crop. The tile flow and deep percolation decreased by 20.8 % and 5.3 %, respectively, due to cereal rye inclusion. The model performance was relatively poor in simulating the CC impact on soil water dynamics in the hilly topography of southern Illinois. Generalizing changes in the soil properties (due to cereal rye inclusion) from the field scale to whole state (regardless of soil type) could be one of the possible limitations in this research. Overall, these findings substantiated the long-term benefits of cereal rye as a winter cover crop and found the spring N fertilizer application reduced nitrate-N loss compared to fall N application. These results could be helpful in promoting the practice in the Upper Mississippi River basin.

Assessing the concept of control points for dissolved reactive phosphorus losses in subsurface drainage.

Agricultural phosphorus (P) loss, which is highly variable in space and time, has been studied using the hot spot/hot moment concept, but increasing the rigor of these assessments through a relatively newer "ecosystem control point" framework may help better target management practices that provide a disproportionate water quality benefit. Sixteen relatively large (0.85 ha) subsurface drainage plots in Illinois were used as individual observational units to assess dissolved reactive P (DRP) concentrations and losses within a given field over four study years. Three plot-months were identified as DRP control points (one export and two transport control points), where each plot-month contributed >10% of the annual DRP load from the field. These control points occurred on separate plots and in both the growing and nongrowing seasons but were likely related to agronomic P applications. Elevated soil test P, especially near a historic farmstead, and soil clay content were spatial drivers of P loss across the field. The nongrowing season was hypothesized to be the most significant period of P loss, but this was only documented in two of the four study years. A cereal rye (Secale cereale L.) cover crop did not significantly reduce DRP loss in any year, but there was also no evidence of increased drainage P losses due to freezing and thawing of the cover crop biomass. This work confirmed annual subsurface drainage DRP losses were agronomically small (<3% of P application rate), although the range of DRP concentrations relative to eutrophication criteria still demonstrated a potential for negative environmental impact. The control point concept may provide a new lens to view drainage DRP losses, but this framework should be refined through additional within-field studies because mechanisms of P export at this field were more nuanced than just the presence of tile drainage (i.e., a transport control point).

Towards sustainable coal industry: Turning coal bottom ash into wealth.

Although the world is gradually moving towards renewable energy resources, the coal industry will continue to be a major energy supply sector in the foreseeable future. However, by-products such as coal fly ash (CFA), coal bottom ash (CBA), and boiler slag are generated during coal combustion, and have become a significant environmental concern. There is an urgent need for transdisciplinary efforts in research, policy, and practice to reduce these by-products substantially. Many studies have focused on the environmental management and comprehensive utilization of CFA. As a comparison, less attention has been paid to CBA. Therefore, this critical review provides a holistic picture of CBA, from the generation, fundamental characteristics, environmental concerns to potential applications, and benefits analysis. Based on the fundamental characteristics, CBA can be considered as a sustainable and renewable resource with great potential to produce value-added materials. High-value applications and current research related to CBA, including construction and ceramic industry, wastewater remediation, soil amelioration, energy catalysis, valuable metals recovery, and material synthesis, are systemically presented and compared. It emphasizes the environmental and economic benefits of the sustainable applications of CBA as well. Particularly, it indicates that CBA is a promising candidate in normal, lightweight, self-compacting, and ultra-high-performance concrete, which shows a reduction in both energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions during concrete production. This work provides new insights into the greener and sustainable applications of CBA, and it will offer a practical guide for the sustainable development of the coal industry.

Reliability of functional forms for calculation of longitudinal dispersion coefficient in rivers.

Although dimensional analysis suggests sound functional forms (FFs) to calculate longitudinal dispersion coefficient (Kx), no attempt has been made to quantify both reliability of the estimated Kx value and its sensitivity to variation of the FFs' parameters. This paper introduces a new index named bandwidths similarity factor (bws-factor) to quantify the reliability of FFs based on a rigorous analysis of distinct calibration datasets to tune the FFs. We modified the bootstrap approach to ensure that each resampled calibration dataset is representative of available datapoints in a rich, global database of tracer studies. The dimensionless Kx values were calculated by 200 FFs tuned with the generalized reduced gradient algorithm. Correlation coefficients for the tuned FFs varied from 0.60 to 0.98. The bws-factor ranged from 0.11 to 1.00, indicating poor reliability of FFs for Kx calculation, mainly due to different sources of error in the Kx calculation process. The calculated exponent of the river's aspect ratio varied over a wider range (i.e., -0.76 to 1.50) compared to that computed for the river's friction term (i.e., -0.56 to 0.87). Since Kx is used in combination with one-dimensional numerical models in water quality studies, poor reliability in its estimation can result in unrealistic concentrations being simulated by the models downstream of pollutant release into rivers.

Split-nitrogen application with cover cropping reduces subsurface nitrate losses while maintaining corn yields.

Artificial subsurface drainage is essential to sustain crop production in many areas but may also impair water quality by exacerbating nitrate (NO3 )-nitrogen (N) delivery downstream. Cover crops and split-N application have been promoted as key conservation practices for reducing NO3 -N losses, but few studies have simultaneously assessed their effect on water quality and crop productivity. A field study was conducted to evaluate the effects of N application timing and cover crops on subsurface drainage NO3 -N losses and grain yield in continuous corn (Zea mays L.). Treatments were preplant-N: 224 kg N ha-1 split-applied with 60% fall + 40% preplant in 2018, or as single preplant applications in 2019 and 2020; split-N: 40% preplant + 60% side-dress (V6-V7); split-N + cover crop (CC): Split-N + cereal rye (Secale cereale L.); and a zero N plot as the control. Across the 3-yr study period, split-N + CC significantly reduced flow-weighted NO3 -N concentration and NO3 -N loss by 35 and 37%, respectively, compared with preplant-N. However, flow-weighted NO3 -N concentration (4.3 mg L-1 ) and NO3 -N loss (22.4 kg ha-1 ) with split-N were not significantly different from either preplant-N (4.8 mg L-1 and 26.4 kg ha-1 , respectively) or split-N + CC (3.1 mg L-1 and 16.7 kg ha-1 , respectively). Corn yield was significantly lower in the control treatment but did not differ among N fertilized treatments in any year. These results indicate that combining split-N application with cover crops holds promise for meeting the statewide interim milestone NO3 -N reduction target of 15% by 2025 without negatively impacting crop productivity.

Anthropogenic depletion of Iran's aquifers.

Global groundwater assessments rank Iran among countries with the highest groundwater depletion rate using coarse spatial scales that hinder detection of regional imbalances between renewable groundwater supply and human withdrawals. Herein, we use in situ data from 12,230 piezometers, 14,856 observation wells, and groundwater extraction points to provide ground-based evidence about Iran's widespread groundwater depletion and salinity problems. While the number of groundwater extraction points increased by 84.9% from 546,000 in 2002 to over a million in 2015, the annual groundwater withdrawal decreased by 18% (from 74.6 to 61.3 km3/y) primarily due to physical limits to fresh groundwater resources (i.e., depletion and/or salinization). On average, withdrawing 5.4 km3/y of nonrenewable water caused groundwater tables to decline 10 to 100 cm/y in different regions, averaging 49 cm/y across the country. This caused elevated annual average electrical conductivity (EC) of groundwater in vast arid/semiarid areas of central and eastern Iran (16 out of 30 subbasins), indicating "very high salinity hazard" for irrigation water. The annual average EC values were generally lower in the wetter northern and western regions, where groundwater EC improvements were detected in rare cases. Our results based on high-resolution groundwater measurements reveal alarming water security threats associated with declining fresh groundwater quantity and quality due to many years of unsustainable use. Our analysis offers insights into the environmental implications and limitations of water-intensive development plans that other water-scarce countries might adopt.

Complex dynamics of water quality mixing in a warm mono-mictic reservoir.

Cycling of water quality constituents in lakes is affected by thermal stratification and homo-thermal conditions and other factors such as oligotrophication, eutrophication, and microbial activities. In addition, hydrological variability can cause greater differences in water residence time and cycling of constituents in man-made lakes (reservoirs) than in natural lakes. Thus, investigations are needed on vertical mixing of constituents in new impounded reservoirs, especially those constructed to supply domestic water. In this study, sampling campaigns were conducted in the Sabalan reservoir, Iran, to investigate vertical changes in constituent concentrations during the year in periods with thermal stratification and homo-thermal conditions. The results revealed incomplete mixing of constituents, even during cold months when the reservoir was homo-thermal. These conditions interacted to create a bottom-up regulated reservoir with sediment that released settled pollutants, impairing water quality in the Sabalan reservoir during both thermal stratification and homo-thermal conditions. Analysis of total nitrogen and total phosphorus concentrations revealed that the reservoir was eutrophic. External pollution loads, internal cycling of pollutants diffusing out from bottom sediments, reductions in inflow to the reservoir, and reservoir operations regulated vertical mixing and concentrations of constituents in the Sabalan reservoir throughout the year.

Efficacy of heated tourmaline in reducing biomass clogging within woodchip bioreactors.

Woodchip bioreactors can effectively remove waterborne nitrates from subsurface agricultural drainage and prevent the eutrophication of receiving water, but rapid biofilm growth can severely reduce water flux and denitrification efficiency of this practice within a few years. Tourmaline minerals with thermal excitation could generate reactive oxygen species which would inhibit bacterial growth. In this study, laboratory scale woodchip bioreactors were set up to test the anti-clogging and denitrification efficiency of heated woodchips with tourmaline, heated woodchips without tourmaline, and unheated woodchips. The results showed that the heated tourmaline treatment could reduce the clogging and optimize the nitrate removal rate (47.6 g N/m3/day) under all three hydrologic retention times tested (1, 4, and 8 h). Dissolved oxygen and pH values fluctuated with the removal rate and temperature change, while temperature was identified as the key factor impacting the tourmaline treatment. The heated tourmaline treatment had the lowest biofilm growth (lowest DNA concentration), while the 16S rRNA and a higher abundance of nirS-, nirK-, and nosZ-encoding denitrifying bacteria (based on qPCR) confirmed the higher denitrification efficiency of the heated tourmaline treatment.

PVA/PEI crosslinked electrospun nanofibers with embedded La(OH)3 nanorod for selective adsorption of high flux low concentration phosphorus.

Phosphorus (P) is a limiting element causing eutrophication, and thus, its removal has elicited significant attention in recent years. In this study, a La(OH)3 embedded nanorod loaded PVA/PEI crosslinked nanofiber membrane (LNPPM) was synthesized for phosphorus removal at a low concentration and under high flux conditions. Comparative tests demonstrated that an LNPPM exhibited a high phosphate adsorption capacity (165.9 mg P/g La) and performed well even under interference with the pH and coexisting ions (Cl-, SO42-, NO3-, and F-). Through a continuous adsorption test, LNPPM also showed a fast adsorption efficiency with a 73.7% capacity used for C/C0 = 0.5 under a low concentration and high flux phosphate solution. Fourier transform infrared, X-ray diffraction, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, SEM-EDS, and high-resolution transmission electron microscopy analyses indicated that the La(OH)3 nanorod intensively and uniformly embedded into the nanofibers, providing an ideal condition for phosphate adsorption. A mechanistic analysis showed that the ligand exchange played a vital role in the phosphate adsorption of LNPPM. A cost index (capacity/synthesis cost) comparison with typical super phosphate adsorbents also indicated that LNPPM (795 mg P/USD) could be a viable option owing to its simple synthesis procedure, low synthesis cost, and considerable capacity. This technique shows promise for use in most dephosphorization applications.

Relative performance of different data mining techniques for nitrate concentration and load estimation in different type of watersheds.

The increasing availability of water quality datasets has led to a greater focus on hydrologic and water quality analysis, thus requiring more efficient and accurate modelling methods. Data mining techniques have been increasingly used for water quality analysis and prediction of the concentration and load of nitrogen pollutants instead of more traditional simulation methods. In this study, we tested the multilayer perceptron (MLP), k-nearest neighbor (k-NN), random forest, and reduced error pruning tree (REPTree) methods, along with the traditional linear regression, to predict nitrate levels based on long-term data from six watersheds with different land-use practices in the midwestern United States. Both the concentration and load results indicated that REPTree had the best performance, with an R2 of 0.61-0.85 and a relative absolute error of <75.8%. The different watershed types, however, influenced the performance of the data mining methods, where all four methods showed a higher accuracy for urban dominant watershed and lower accuracy for agricultural and forest watersheds. Out of these four methods, classification tree methods (REPTree and RF) performed better than cluster methods (MLP and k-NN) for agricultural and forested watersheds. Our results indicated that both the data structure based on the dominant land use and type of algorithmic method should be carefully considered for selecting a data mining method to predict nitrate concentration and load for a watershed.

ThSSim: A novel tool for simulation of reservoir thermal stratification.

This study presents a novel tool, ThSSim, for simulation of thermal stratification (ThS) in reservoirs. ThSSim is a simple and flexible reduced-order model-based the basis function (RMBF) that combines CE-QUAL-W2 (W2) and proper orthogonal decomposition (POD). In a case study, it was used to simulate water temperature in the Karkheh Reservoir (KR), Iran, for the period 2019-2035. ThSSim consists of two space- and time-dependent components that add predictive ability to the RMBF, a major refinement that extends its practical applications. Water temperature simulations by the W2 model at three-hour time intervals for the KR were used as input data to the POD model to develop ThSSim. To add predictive ability to ThSSim and considering that space-dependent components are not a function of time, we extrapolated the first three time-dependent components by September 30, 2035. We checked the predictive ability of ThSSim against water temperature profiles measured during eight sampling campaigns. We then applied ThSSim to simulate water temperature in the KR for 2019-2035. Simulated water temperature values matched well those measured and obtained by W2. ThSSim results showed an increasing trend for surface water temperature during the simulation period, with a reverse trend observed for water temperature in the bottom layers for three seasons (spring, summer and autumn). The results also indicated decreasing and increasing trends in onset and breakdown of thermal stability, respectively, so that the duration of ThS increased from 278 days in 2019 to 293 days in 2035. ThSSim is thus useful for reservoir temperature simulations. Moreover, the approach used to develop ThSSim is widely applicable to other fields of science and engineering.

How climate scenarios alter future predictions of field-scale water and nitrogen dynamics and crop yields.

Climate change scenarios are widely used for exploring future changes in environmental systems. However, many aspects of the uncertainties associated with the use of climate change scenarios in environmental systems modeling have not yet been studied sufficiently. We explore how the way that baseline scenarios are defined and general circulation model (GCM) outputs are used affects climate change impact assessments of agricultural systems. Our study builds on a previously validated agricultural systems model, the Root Zone Water Quality Model (RZWQM), coupled with the Decision Support System for Agrotechnology Transfer (DSSAT), which models a tiled-drained field in central Illinois of the United States and uses nine GCM outputs to investigate the effects. Our model simulations demonstrated the following three results. Firstly, the evaluation of climate change impacts presented a significant difference between the types of baseline used. The baseline scenario should be defined using the bias-corrected retrospective GCM outputs. Secondly, once GCM outputs are bias-corrected, the selective use of GCM outputs did not add significant value over using all available GCM outputs to provide more plausible future descriptions of agricultural systems' responses. Notably, however, selective use may have impacts comparable to carbon dioxide (CO2) emission scenarios in the field-scale agricultural climate change impact assessments. Thirdly, raw GCM outputs should be avoided for the predictions of field-scale agricultural systems' responses to climate change. Our findings can help provide a clearer picture of how GCM outputs should be used in agricultural systems modeling and might enable us to have more plausible descriptions of how future agricultural systems might unfold.

Exploring the effects of nitrogen fertilization management alternatives on nitrate loss and crop yields in tile-drained fields in Illinois.

It is vital to manage the excessive use of nitrogen (N) fertilizer in corn production, the single largest consumer of N fertilizer in the United States, in order to achieve more sustainable agroecosystems. This study comprehensively explored the effects of N fertilization alternatives on nitrate loss and crop yields using the Root Zone Water Quality Model (RZWQM) in tile-drained fields in central Illinois. The RZWQM was tested for the prediction of tile flow, nitrate loss, and crop yields using eight years (1993-2000) of observed data and showed satisfactory model performances from statistical and graphical evaluations. Our model simulations demonstrated the maximum return to nitrogen (MRTN) rate (193 kgha-1), a newly advised N recommendation by the Illinois Nutrient Loss Reduction Strategy (INLRS), can be further reduced. Nitrate loss was reduced by 10.3% and 29.8%, but corn yields decreased by 0.3% and 1.9% at 156 and 150 kgha-1 of N fertilizer rate in the study sites A and E, respectively. Although adjustment of N fertilization timing presented a further reduction in nitrate loss, there was no optimal timing to ensure nitrate loss reduction and corn productivity. For site A, 100% spring application was the most productive and 40% fall, 10% pre-plant, and 50% side dress application generated the lowest nitrate loss. For site E, the conventional N application timing was verified as the best practice in both corn production and nitrate loss reduction. Compared to surface broadcast placement, injected N fertilizer in spring increased corn yield, but may also escalate nitrate loss. This study presented the need of an adaptive N fertilizer management due to the heterogeneity in agricultural systems, and raised the importance of timing and placement of N fertilizer, as well as further reduction in fertilizer rate to devise a better in-field N management practice.

Evaluation of fly ash pellets for phosphorus removal in a laboratory scale denitrifying bioreactor.

Nitrate and orthophosphate from agricultural activities contribute significantly to nutrient loading in surface water bodies around the world. This study evaluated the efficacy of woodchips and fly ash pellets in tandem to remove nitrate and orthophosphate from simulated agricultural runoff in flow-through tests. The fly ash pellets had previously been developed specifically for orthophosphate removal for this type of application, and the sorption bench testing showed a good promise for flow-through testing. The lab-scale horizontal-flow bioreactor used in this study consisted of an upstream column filled with woodchips followed by a downstream column filled with fly ash pellets (3 and 1 m lengths, respectively; both 0.15 m diameter). Using influent concentrations of 12 mg/L nitrate and 5 mg/L orthophosphate, the woodchip bioreactor section was able to remove 49-85% of the nitrate concentration at three hydraulic retention times ranging from 0.67 to 4.0 h. The nitrate removal rate for woodchips ranged from 40 to 49 g N/m3/d. Higher hydraulic retention times (i.e., smaller flow rates) corresponded with greater nitrate load reduction. The fly ash pellets showed relatively stable removal efficiency of 68-75% across all retention times. Total orthophosphate adsorption by the pellets was 0.059-0.114 mg P/g which was far less than the saturated capacity (1.69 mg/g; based on previous work). The fly ash pellets also removed some nitrate and the woodchips also removed some orthophosphate, but these reductions were not significant. Overall, woodchip denitrification followed by fly ash pellet P-sorption can be an effective treatment technology for nitrate and phosphate removal in subsurface drainage.

Modeling effect of cover condition and soil type on rotavirus transport in surface flow.

Runoff from animal production facilities contains various microbial pathogens which pose a health hazard to both humans and animals. Rotavirus is a frequently detected pathogen in agricultural runoff and the leading cause of death among children around the world. Diarrheal infection caused by rotavirus causes more than two million hospitalizations and death of more than 500,000 children every year. Very little information is available on the environmental factors governing rotavirus transport in surface runoff. The objective of this study is to model rotavirus transport in overland flow and to compare the model results with experimental observations. A physically based model, which incorporates the transport of infective rotavirus particles in both liquid (suspension or free-floating) and solid phase (adsorbed to soil particles), has been used in this study. Comparison of the model results with experimental results showed that the model could reproduce the recovery kinetics satisfactorily but under-predicted the virus recovery in a few cases when multiple peaks were observed during experiments. Similarly, the calibrated model had a good agreement between observed and modeled total virus recovery. The model may prove to be a promising tool for developing effective management practices for controlling microbial pathogens in surface runoff.

Characterization of fly ash ceramic pellet for phosphorus removal.

Phosphorus has been recognized as a leading pollutant for surface water quality deterioration. In the Midwestern USA, subsurface drainage not only provides a pathway for excess water to leave the field but it also drains out nutrients like nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P). Fly ash has been identified as one of the viable materials for phosphorus removal from contaminated waters. In this study, a ceramic pellet was manufactured using fly ash for P absorption. Three types of pellet with varying lime and clay proportions by weight (type 1: 10% lime + 30% clay, type 2: 20% lime + 20% clay, and type 3: 30% lime + 10% clay) were characterized and evaluated for absorption efficiency. The result showed that type 3 pellet (60% fly ash with 30% lime and 10% clay) had the highest porosity (14%) and absorption efficiency and saturated absorption capacity (1.98 mg P/g pellet) compared to type 1 and 2 pellets. The heavy metal leaching was the least (30 µg/L of chromium after 5 h) for type 3 pellet compared to other two. The microcosmic structure of pellet from scanning electron microscope showed the type 3 pellet had the better distribution of aluminum and iron oxide on the surface compared other two pellets. This result indicates that addition of lime and clay can improve P absorption capacity of fly ash while reducing the potential to reduce chromium leaching.